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Introduction: The oral insulin delivery is the most familiar, easy and patient friendly of all the routes of insulin applications. The aim of this study was to generate a new chitosan coated insulin nanoliposomes and evaluate their potential for the delivery of insulin. Materials & Methods: Nanoliposomes encapsulated insulin with negative surface charge was prepared by reverse phase evaporation method. For such a preparation, nanoliposomes lecithin, cholesterol, cetyl-diphosphate and β-cyclodexterin were used. Then, nanoliposomes were coated by means of incubation with the chitosan solution. The encapsulation efficiency of the prepared nanoliposomes was measured by spectrophotometry technique after dissolution of the nanoparticles. The hypoglycemic efficacies of chitosan-coated insulin nanoliposomes were investigated by monitoring the blood glucose level after oral administration to diabetic rabbits. Findings: Insulin entrapment efficacy for the prepared nanoliposomes by application of the new formulation was significantly (p<0.05) higher (79±0.16) than those of other formulations, respectively. The in vivo result clearly indicated that the insulin-loaded nanoliposomes could effectively reduce the blood glucose level in diabetic rabbits. Discussion & Conclusion: The results clearly suggested that the prepared nanoliposomes could be considered a good candidate for oral insulin delivery

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The abrupt conformational matrix, in which PNIPAM or its modified forms transition of it upon changes at temperatures, may be embedded. It is expected that the change around 32´C has stirred up explorations for in temperature may induce the conformational technological applications. Methods & Materials: Thermo-sensitive hydrogels were prepared by graft copolymerization of chitosan and N-Isopropylacrylamide via gamma radiation. Characterization of hydrogels such as 13C-NMR, DSC analysis and swelling test and cell assessments for harvesting living cell sheet were investigated. 13C-NMR and DSC analysis showed chitosan and NIPAAm monomer were grafted via gamma radiation successfully. Findings: Swelling ratio and curves results administrated hydrophilicity / hydrophobicity of hydrogel that this property is due to presence of PNIPAAm in different temperatures. The hydrogel was tested for harvesting epithelial cells after carrying out cell culture at 37 °C and incubating the confluent cells at 4°C for spontaneous detachment of cell sheet from hydrogel surface without enzyme treatment. Discussion & Conclusion: Cell viability assay results and microscopic observations demonstrated that cells could attach to the hydrogel surface and maintain high viability and proliferation ability. Cell detachment efficiency from the hydrogel was high. These unique properties of the hydrogel would make it a promising support for epithelial cell grafting especially cornea regeneration.

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Introduction: The development of health and protection of environment is depended on the provision of safe and clean water. The turbidity of water comes from the suspended and colloidal matters contained in it. The purpose of the present investigation was to compare the efficiency of natural coagulant chitosan with poly aluminum chloride (PACl) in the removal of water turbidity. Chitosan is a cationic biopolymer with high molecular weight that is produced from the crust of crustaceans like shrimp and crab. Materials & Methods: This investigation was performed, in the laboratory scale, on water samples containing synthetic water turbidity by applying kaolin in high, middle, and low turbidities. The first phase of tests aimed to determine the optimum concentration of the coagulants chitosan and poly aluminum chloride and the efficiency of turbidity removing. The second stage of experiments aimed to determine the optimum pH and the effect of coagulant on the water pH. Findings: Optimum dosages of chitosan for removing the turbidities 1000, 500, 50 and 10 NTU were 10, 6.5, 1.5 and 1 mg/L, respectively and the optimum PH values were also 8, 8, 7.5, and 8, respectively. Optimum dosages of PACl in the respected turbidities were 28, 18, 15 and 12 mg/L, respectively and the optimum PH values were also 8, 7.5, 7.5, and 8, correspondingly. Discussion & Conclusion: The results showed that only in the turbidity 10 NTU, the efficiency of poly aluminum chloride was better than the efficiency of chitosan. In other turbidities, chitosan showed better performance. Chitosan had a lower effect on the water PH, while PACl had a noticeable effect on the water PH. The optimum dosage of chitosan was less than that of PACl in all turbidities. At different levels of turbidity, the optimum concentration of chitosan was significantly lower in comparison with poly aluminum chloride. Coagulant dose reduction decreases the cost of water treatment. This subject is one of the advantages of the bioorganic polymer, chitosan, to the inorganic coagulant, poly aluminum chloride, in the refinement of water with considering the economic aspects. Chitosan, in contrast to poly aluminum chloride, had little effect on the water pH.

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Introduction: High volumes of wastewater along with contaminants, such as colloids and dyes are discharged from different industries into the environment. These wastewaters create major problems and serious threats for water resources. Therefore, it is essential to treat such wastewaters and reach the effluent discharge standards. In this regard, chitosan as a coagulant has a comparable performance with other coagulants. Moreover, the addition of chitosan and removal of turbidity probably lead to higher efficiency of nanoparticles in lower dosages which is investigated in the current study. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the efficiency of chitosan and magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles for the removal of color and turbidity.
 
Materials & Methods: Synthetic wastewater was prepared by mixing specific amounts of bentonite and direct blue 71 dye in distilled water. After the preparation of different concentrations of color and turbidity, the experiments were conducted with different dosages of chitosan and MgO separately and in combination. The influence of variables such as pH, initial concentration of dye and turbidity, MgO and chitosan dosages on removal efficiency was investigated in this study.
 
Fidings: According to the results, the highest rate of color and turbidity removal was obtained at 1.5 mg/L chitosan in combination with 1.5 g/L MgO with the efficiency of 97.5%. In addition, the highest removal efficiency was obtained at pH of 7.
 
Discussion & Conclusions: Due to the need for high doses of MgO in high turbidities, the use of chitosan as a coagulant can be effective in reducing the use of MgO.
 
 

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Introduction: Antibiotic-carrying nanoparticles have cytotoxic effects on drug-resistant bacteria. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of chitosan nanoparticles carrying amoxicillin and clavulanic acid on the viability of staphylococcus aureus strains. 
 
Materials & Methods: In this study, chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by ionic gelation method and were loaded by amoxicillin and clavulanic acid leading to the production of nanoparticles with dimension less than 100 nm. To evaluate the effect of different nanoparticle concentration on the bacteria, chitosan and amoxicillin concentrations of 0.25-8 and 1-128 µg/ml were prepared, respectively, using the microdilution method. Subsequently, 100 nm of different chitosan nanoparticle concentration with antibiotic was transferred to each well and 1 μl of bacterial suspension was added to the wells.  Turbidity in the wells was observed without armed eye and the light absorbance was read in the wavelength range of 630 nm by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
 
Findings: The results showed that minimum inhibitory concentrations of chitosan nanoparticles carrying amoxicillin and clavulanic were 0.9 and 3.6 µg/ml in susceptible and resistant specimens, respectively.  Moreover, their minimum destructive concentrations were obtained at 1.8 and 7.2 µg/ml, respectively.
 
Discussion & Conclusions: According to the results, the obtained combination showed more antibacterial effectiveness, compared to chitosan and amoxicillin alone. This reveals the synergistic effect of amoxicillin with clavulanic acid and chitosan.
 

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Introduction: Ginger (Zingiber Officinale) is a plant that is used widely across the world. This study investigated the effect of ginger (Zingiber Officinale) extract on the levels of liver enzymes, biochemical parameters, and histological changes among Wistar rats in the presence of chitosan and isoniazid.
 

Materials & Methods: The extract of the ginger plant and ginger treated with chitosan was taken after being dried. Subsequently, the ethanol solvent was removed from the extract using rotary equipment. In total, 60 adult males white Wistar rats were utilized in this study. Oral extract of ginger and ginger treated with chitosan was used as gavage for the induction of oxidative effect. The DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method was also used to compare the antioxidant effects of ginger and ginger treated with chitosan. 

Findings: The serum levels of AST, ALT, and ALP enzymes, cholesterol, glucose, and triglyceride increased significantly in the experimental groups of 4 (received 200mg/dl isoniazid) and 5 (received 200mg/dl isoniazid and ginger), compared to the control group. On the other hand, the levels of these parameters decreased significantly in the experimental groups of 2 (received 200mg/dl ginger) and 3 (received 200mg/dl gingers treated by chitosan). Furthermore, the levels of these parameters decreased in the experimental groups of 6 (received 200mg/dl isoniazid and gingers treated by chitosan); however, it was not statistically significant. 

Discussions & Conclusions: According to the findings, ginger and ginger treated with chitosan can reduce blood glucose and improves hepatic lipid profile. Moreover, the antioxidant effects of ginger extract treated with chitosan were more effective, compared to the ginger, which indicates a positive effect of chitosan treatment on the amountnumber of ginger antioxidants.

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Introduction: Today, the use of magnetic nanomaterials promises purposeful and intelligent drug delivery. These magnetic drug nanocarriers can respond appropriately and intelligently to the external magnetic field, which can be used to selectively release the drug into the target tissue. Therefore, this study investigated the synthesis of zinc ferrite nanoparticles and some of their structural, electronic, and magnetic properties. The ultimate goal of this study is to use nanotechnology and quantum mechanics in intelligent and targeted drug delivery to improve the patient's quality of life and reduce the destructive effects of unwanted drug distribution in healthy tissues.
Material & Methods: In this study, zinc ferrite nanoparticles were prepared using heat treatment, and then the structural and magnetic properties of these nanoparticles were investigated using imaging-measurement methods on the nanoscale. In addition, cytotoxicity test (MTT) was performed on mouse fibroblast cell line (NIH3T3), and the results were analyzed using SPSS software. Moreover, using the results of quantum calculations, the chitosan molecular system was proposed as a coating for this drug carrier.
Findings: Analysis of the results obtained from X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron microscopy (SEM) spectra confirmed the existence of spinel structure and the small size of these particles (20-23 nm). Furthermore, the results obtained from the vibrating magnetometer and the paramagnetic resonance spectrometer showed the presence of paramagnetic properties in the synthetic nanoparticles. In addition, the analysis of the results obtained from the vibrating magnetometer shows the low magnetic residue of the synthetic magnetic nanoparticles. This can be useful in the mechanism of targeted drug release. In addition, analysis of cytotoxicity (MTT) test results on synthetic nanoparticles showed that the toxicity of these nanoparticles depends on the concentration (dose) and time. Therefore, at concentrations higher than 20 µg/ml and also over time, the vital activity of cells decreased.
Discussion & Conclusion: Based on the results obtained in this study, the use of magnetic zinc ferrite nanoparticles (coated with chitosan) for targeted drug delivery to the target tissue was suggested. The unique properties of these drug-carrying nanoparticles, such as good magnetic field response, good particle size, and low toxicity, enable the physician to have more precise control over targeted drug delivery to the target tissue.
 

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Introduction: Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) is a non-fermentative gram-negative coccobacillus that shows high resistance to antimicrobial compounds. Biofilm formation is one of the essential features of many Acinetobacter species that leads to high antibiotic resistance. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of biofilm formation and determine the antibiofilm activity of chitosan nanoparticles in clinical isolates of A. baumannii.
Material & Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in 2021 and investigated 100 isolates collected from different hospitals. Microscopic, biochemical, and molecular tests were performed to identify the bacteria. The antibiotic resistance pattern of the isolates was evaluated by the disk diffusion method against 10 antibiotics, and the ability to produce biofilm was evaluated by microtiter plate method. Subsequently, 16SrRNA and CsuA genes were identified by multiplex-PCR molecular methods. After the preparation of chitosan nanoparticles and determination of MIC concentration, antibiofilm activity was measured by plate microtiter, and Real-Time PCR was used to examine the expression of the CsuA gene involved in biofilm.
Findings: In this study, out of 100 isolates examined, 29 isolates were confirmed as A. baumannii. Among 29 isolates, ceftazidime had the highest drug resistance (75.86%). The CsuA gene was detected in 51.72% of the isolates. Moreover, using a microtiter plate and Real-Time PCR, the level of antibiotic activity of chitosan nanoparticles was determined at a significant level of P<0.01.
Discussion & Conclusion: Considering the anti-biofilm effects found in the present study, it seems that chitosan nanoparticles can be used as a pharmaceutical candidate in the pharmaceutical industry.

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Introduction: Today, cancer is one of the health concerns in modern societies. The use of nanoparticles in diagnosis, drug delivery, imaging, and cancer treatment has received much attention in medical sciences.   The most important problem when treating cancer with chemotherapy is the lack of access to the central parts of the mass due to its less blood supply. This study aimed to investigate the toxicity of iron oxide nanoparticles coated with biopolymer chitosan/alginate on melanoma cancer cells (Hep G2 cells).
Material & Methods: In this research, magnetic iron nanoparticles were coated with two biopolymers, namely chitosan and alginate. The size and surface morphology of these nanoparticles were checked by size measuring device and scanning electron microscope. Moreover, the binding of functional groups of chitosan and alginate to iron magnetic nanoparticles was checked by an infrared spectrometer. In this study, magnetic iron nanoparticles and modified nanoparticles were treated for 24 hours and the IC₅₀ concentration of the compounds was estimated. The toxic properties of these nanoparticles were evaluated by MTT test and acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining.
Findings: After examining the photos of the scanning electron microscope and the size measuring device, the size of 50 nanometers was shown for the modified iron nanoparticles, and the shape of these nanoparticles was observed to be completely round and spherical.
Discussion & Conclusion: The findings from the investigations of binanoparticles definitely confirmed the effective coating of nanoparticles by chitosan and alginate biopolymers. Furthermore, the findings showed that magnetic iron nanoparticles had higher toxic effects depending on the concentration and their IC50 concentration was about 134 µM/ml, while the coated nanoparticles had significantly lower toxic effects and did not have significant toxicity on Hep G2 cells at concentrations below 25 μM/ml. The coating of iron oxy nanoparticles significantly reduces their toxicity concentration.

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Introduction: Glutamate oxidase (GluOx; EC 1.4.3.11), as an oxidoreductase enzyme, catalyzes the oxidation of glutamate to α-ketoglutarate, ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). In this reaction, the amount of H₂O₂ is proportional to the concentration of glutamate and its concentration can be measured by using an electrochemical biosensor. The same as other enzyme-based biosensors, glutamate oxidase is one of the key elements in the construction of glutamate biosensors. Such biosensors are fully capable of identifying biological analytes, such as glutamine, ammonia, and creatinine. In addition, glutamate oxidase-based biosensors have many applications in quantitative and qualitative measurements in analytical chemistry, determining the quality of food products, as well as early detection of heart and liver disorders in clinical biochemistry. Considering the importance of the glutamate neurotransmitter in various brain functions, this study investigated its measurement in the brain of male Wistar rats by using a glutamate oxidase-based biosensor.
Material & Methods: In order to measure glutamate, initially, a glutamate oxidase-based biosensor was made by simultaneously immobilizing the enzyme and chitosan on the platinum electrode surface. Then, the animals were sacrificed, and their brains were removed and placed in a phosphate buffer. Afterward, the contents of the brain were centrifuged to create a completely uniform mixture. Finally, the concentration of glutamate in the prepared brain samples was measured using the fabricated biosensor by the cyclic voltammetry technique.
Findings: The results of cyclic voltammetry experiments showed that the cathodic peak current of the fabricated biosensor was 0.812 µA. Moreover, the calibration curve indicated that the biosensor response was linear up to 1 mM and glutamate concentration in brain samples was also equal to 63.5 µM.
Discussion & Conclusion: The cyclic voltammetry experiments showed that the concentration of H2O2, which is produced during the catalytic activity of glutamate oxidase, is completely proportional to the concentration of glutamate oxidase. Furthermore, this study showed that, despite the very low concentration of glutamate neurotransmitters, the glutamate oxidase-based electrochemical biosensor can precisely identify it qualitatively and quantitatively in biological samples, such as brain samples.

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